The Keepers of the Cheese

 

QUESTION: I recently purchased a beautiful Wedgwood Jasperware cheese dome at an annual antiques show. Although I have never thought of collecting cheese keepers, I fell in love with this one. Why did the English make this type of cheese keeper? Was it for all types of cheese? Didn’t cheese need to be refrigerated?

ANSWER: Today, most people eat supermarket cheese, all of which needs to be refrigerated. Even creamy gourmet cheeses need to be kept cold due to their cream content. But some English cheeses, such as cheddar and Stilton, are hard cheeses 

English cheesemaking dates back to around 3800 BCE. But it was the Romans occupying the region in the first decades of the first millennium that brought it into general production by using rennet from ruminant animals to create cheese during the summer months.

Early cheesemaking was a simple procedure,  requiring no more than a couple of bowls, a ladle, a strainer and some hard-won skill to make soft fresh goat or cow's milk cheese. Snowy-white Perroche, made today in Herefordshire, is just such a cheese with a delicate citrus flavor.

Every Roman legionary got an ounce of cheese in his daily ration. With 5,000 men in a legion, that amounted to 5,000 ounces or about 140 kilos a day. Only hard cheese could  be cut into one-ounce pieces. The Romans also introduced large-scale sheep farming to Britain.

Fast forward to the Middle Ages where the feudal system of lords and tenants encouraged centralized cheese production by taking advantage of the labor available through agricultural workers. This cheese fed the lords and their tenants, instead of being traded.

Medieval monks ate lots of cheese. Many monasteries had their own dairies; records from Whitby Abbey in Yorkshire show purchases of rennet. The monks originally brought their expertise with them from France. Their repetitious lifestyle, daily routines, and general scientific interests proved extremely useful in cheesemaking. Most of the cheese made for the monks was probably hard, low-fat cheese, with the cream skimmed off to churn into butter for the abbot’s table. 

Due to the proliferation of sheep in England, farmers used ewe’s milk to make many of the early cheeses. By the 17th century, cows had become the preferred dairy animal, especially in areas with flatter landscapes and excellent grazing conditions which could support larger herds. This increase in herd size enabled farmers to produce more wheels of cheese, allowing them to send their cheeses to town and city markets and aboard. However, local farmers continued to produce cheeses for themselves, leading to the creation of classic cheeses such as Cheshire and Wensleydale. 

Soon Britain became known for its large, hard wheels of cheese, called truckles. A truckle of cheese is a cylindrical wheel of cheese, usually taller than it is wide, and often described as barrel-shaped. The word is derived from the Latin trochlea, meaning “wheel or pulley.” Made in styles with and without additional cream, these cheeses all shared the common practice of using molds lined with cheesecloth to drain curds during the beginning stages of production. 

And while English cheddar is popular today, Cheshire cheese was the predominant cheese produced across England. By the middle of the 17th century, more than 4,000 farms made the crumbly, dense cheese, although the average herd size was only five cows, barely enough to create a wheel of Cheshire a day. In the southwestern parts of the country, however, farms would often combine resources to create gigantic, 120-pound wheels that could handle significant aging, often more than 5 years. The first recorded shipload of Cheshire cheese arrived at the port of London in October 1650 and was an instant hit.

Over the next few hundred years, Cheshire became England’s most popular and widely sold cheese until the late 19th Century when Victorian Cheddar knocked it off its perch. By the beginning of the 20th century, cheddar had become Britain’s top cheese.

Of all the cheese in Britain, Stilton is probably the most revered. The history of the early production of Blue Stilton cheese is unclear, but the “King of English Cheeses’ wasn’t actually produced in the village of Stilton. Historians credit Cooper Thornbill, landlord of the Blue Bell Inn in Stilton, with the earliest marketing of Blue Stilton cheese between 1730 and 1759. Located on the Great North Road, the inn was a popular stopping point for coaches traveling north from London to Edinburgh. Thornhill partnered with Leicestershire cheese maker Frances Pawlett and negotiated arrangements which gave the Bell Inn exclusive rights to market Blue Stilton. Travelers spread the word of this fine cheese upon returning to London. The only downside of Blue Stilton cheese is it pungent aroma.

Victorian dinner parties often included the service of cheese accompanying a salad course just prior to dessert. It was important to keep the cheese covered not only to reduce drying, but also to prevent the pungent smell from permeating the room.

Stilton can only be made in three counties – Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire – and not, oddly enough, in the Cambridgeshire town of Stilton itself. 

The mass production of cheese made it readily available to the poorer classes. Therefore, simple cost-effective storage solutions for cheese gained popularity. Ceramic cheese dishes, or cheese bells, became one of the most common ways to prolong the life of cheese in the home. It remained popular in most households until the introduction of the home refrigerator in 1913

The Victorian passion for blue-veined Stilton cheese was equal to the array of dishes used to serve it. Also known as cheese stands, cheese bells and cheese domes, potteries produced these dishes in a variety of styles. In the early 19th century, Wedgwood was the first to produce a tall cylindrical cover with matching stand intended to accommodate an entire round of Stilton cheese. Most majolica cheese keepers were of this style. Less commonly, majolica cheese stands assume a smaller triangular shape designed to store a single wedge.

The domed covers of majolica cheese keepers were typically decorated in relief with basket weaving, foliage, flowers and occasionally birds. On top of the dome sat a finial composed of a twig, rope, flower blossom or a finely modeled animal figure. The stand or underplate complements the dome both in design and coloration and had a peripheral rim on its upper surface inside which the dome rests.

Many manufacturers made cheese domes. Probably the most well known was Josiah Wedgwood. His Jasperware was the perfect form for a cheese dome. Developed by late 1774, Jasperware comprised a dense white stoneware which accepted colors throughout the entire body.

By December 1774 Wedgwood was able to give a fine white composition any tint of fine blue.' And by January 1775 the stage was set for blue Jasper: After that He was soon able to create almost any shade of blue, plus a beautiful sea green, chocolate brown, and several other colors. Wedgwood decorated his cheese domes with low reliefs of classical figures in white.

And while Wedgwood continued with his classical themes, another potter, George Jones, created elegant designs for his domes, with pastoral decorations in vibrant colors.  

One of Jones’ domes features a waterlily and dragonfly pattern. The pottery made this pattern in both low and tall sizes, as well as with a couple of different handle treatments, the traditional waterlily blossom, and a rarer version with a kingfisher handle. As with all of the Jones domes, it was also made in several colors. Other domes feature different handles with shells, leaves, and snakes.

A Jones dome with a cow and acanthus leaf design features a cow handle on top. 

The pottery used this same cow handle on its Calla Lily dome, part of the larger rare Calla Lily series. One of the most frequently found domes is one with the apple blossom pattern, also part of a larger series.

An unusual cheese dome pattern made by the company was the thatched bee skep cheese keeper in two sizes. Beautiful and very rare, it’ is also one of the most valuable. 

Probably the most famous of Jones’ cheese domes features a fence and daisy design.

To read more articles on antiques, please visit the Antiques Articles section of my Web site.  And to stay up to the minute on antiques and collectibles, please join the over 30,000 readers by following my free online magazine, #TheAntiquesAlmanac. Learn more about "The  Vernacular Style" in the 2024 Winter Edition, online now. And to read daily posts about unique objects from the past and their histories, like the #Antiques and More Collection on Facebook.

Enriching the Human Spirit Through Pottery

 

QUESTION: A few years ago, I found several Pewabic ceramic tiles while browsing a local thrift shop. I’m not sure how old they are, but I suspect they’re newer ones, purchased as souvenirs of a visit to the Pewabic Pottery in Detroit. Since the tiles were very attractive, I bought them. However, I don’t know anything about Pewabic tiles. Recently, a friend told me they were by Pewabic. Can you please tell me more about the company? I’d like to buy more of these tiles and possibly start a collection.

ANSWER: Pewabic ceramic tiles have been a popular collectible for many years and are relatively easy to find. The pottery is still producing them, including special ceramic Christmas tree ornaments. 

In 1903, Mary Chase Perry Stratton, an artist and educator, and Horace J. Caulkins, a dental supplier and kiln manufacturer founded Pewabic Pottery in Detroit, Michigan, the same year that Henry Ford established his motor company in the city. Caulkins was considered a high-heat and kiln specialist, and developed the "Revelation kiln". Mary Chase Stratton was "the artistic and marketing force." The collaboration of the two and their blend of art and technology gave the pottery its distinctive qualities as Detroit's contribution to the International Arts and Crafts movement and exemplified the American  Craftsman Style. The pottery became a leader in the Arts & Crafts Movement for its handcrafted pottery and ceramic tiles.

The word Pewabic is derived from the Ojibwa (or Chippewa) word "wabic", which means metal, or "bewabic", which means iron or steel, and specifically referring to the "Pewabic" Upper Peninsula copper mine where Stratton walked with her father. Her workshop was an integral part of America’s Arts and Crafts movement, a backlash against mechanization that began in the late 19th century. In it she fashioned handmade, delicate wares, and was much like Henry Ford’s factory with its assembly-line production. 

Challenged by a friend to replicate a piece of shimmering Babylonian earthenware, Stratton decided to fire her pieces three times, adding a spray of kerosene for the final blast. The oil burst into flames, combusting with the metal oxides in the glaze to create a swirl of metallic colors. By 1909 she had perfected the iridescent glaze and the process of “fuming” that became the studio’s trademark.

The pottery started out in a carriage house in Detroit’s Brush Park neighborhood (pictured). Quickly outgrowing this “Stable Studio,” renowned architect William Buck Stratton was hired to design the pottery studio on Detroit's East Side, which is still in use today. Production moved into this building in 1907.

Demand for Pewabic grew thanks to our stunning iridescent glazes and inspiring architectural tile installations throughout southeast Michigan and across the country. Generations have been enriched by the Pewabic art and tile adorning homes, schools, churches, and public institutions, cementing Pewabic into the rich cultural fabric of Detroit.

Under Mary Stratton's artistic leadership, Pewabic Pottery employees created lamps, vessels, and architectural tiles. Architectural pieces have been a staple in Pewabic's history. They were known for their iridescent (like an oil slick with an incredible translucent quality and a phantasmagoric depth of color) glazes. Architectural tiles were used in churches, concert halls, fountains, libraries, museums, schools and public buildings. The studio's work graces numerous edifices throughout Michigan and the rest of the United States. Noteworthy examples include Herzstein Hall at Rice University in Houston, Texas, and the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago. Illinois. 

Stratton  oversaw operation of the pottery until her death at the age of 94. She gifted the pottery to Michigan State University in 1965 which used it for its ceramics education program. 

Pewabic tiles have long been in great demand in Detroit and southeastern Michigan for  use in buildings, and they can be found in many of the area's finest structures. 

To read more articles on antiques, please visit the Antiques Articles section of my Web site.  And to stay up to the minute on antiques and collectibles, please join the over 30,000 readers by following my free online magazine, #TheAntiquesAlmanac. Learn more about "The  Vernacular Style" in the 2024 Winter Edition, online now. And to read daily posts about unique objects from the past and their histories, like the #Antiques and More Collection on Facebook.

Weighing In

 

QUESTION: Ever since I was a little boy, I’ve had a fascination with scales. I love weighing things. Now that I’m older, that fascination has turned to a passion for collecting old scales. Currently, I have about 10 scales of varying ages that I acquired from various sources over the years. I’d really like to expand my collection, but I don’t know much about the history of scales and don’t really know where to start. Can you help me?

ANSWER: You have a very unique interest. Scales and other weighing devices are forms of scientific instruments. Scales have played an important role in economies around the world throughout history. 

The earliest known weighing scales date back to ancient Egypt and Rome. Some of the earliest examples of weight measurement consisted of a simple rod suspended by a string in the middle. The user attached a pan to each end. In one pan, he placed  the item, such as a sack of gold coins, to be weighed and in the other stones representing a known weight until he balanced the rod. By calculating the total of the known weights, the user could determine the weight of the object in the other pan.

The ancient Egyptians used balance scales for trade and commerce Scales were also important religious symbols. The primary role of the Egyptian goddess of justice, called Maat, was to assist Osiris in the weighing of the heart in the judgement of the dead. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead depicts a scene in which a scribe's heart is weighed against the feather of truth.

The original form of a balance consisted of a beam with a fulcrum at its center. For highest accuracy, the fulcrum would consist of a sharp V-shaped pivot seated in a shallower V-shaped bearing. Balance scales that required equal weights on each side of the fulcrum have been used by everyone from apothecaries and assayers to jewelers and postal workers. 

The Romans also used balance scales for trade and taxation purposes, as well as in the production of coins. 

During medieval and Renaissance times, more precise weighing scales appeared. Beam scales, for example, used a lever system to increase precision and accuracy. In the 16th century, the invention of the steelyard, a type of lever scale, allowed for even greater accuracy in weighing objects. Ddesigned to be mounted to a wall, the most ingenious ones could be folded against the wall and moved out of the way when not in use.

Coin-operated weighing machines also became popular during this time, allowing merchants to charge customers based on the weight of the goods they were purchasing. Weighing scales became essential for commerce during this period, with merchants using them to ensure fair trade and prevent fraud. 

In 1669 the Frenchman Gilles Personne de Roberval presented a new kind of balance scale to the French Academy of Sciences. His scale consisted of a pair of vertical columns separated by a pair of equal-length arms and pivoting in the center of each arm from a central vertical column, creating a parallelogram. A peg extended from the side of each vertical column. To the amazement of observers, no matter where Roberval hung two equal weight along the peg, the scale still balanced. In this sense, the scale was revolutionary: it evolved into the more-commonly encountered form consisting of two pans placed on vertical column located above the fulcrum and the parallelogram below them. The advantage of the Roberval design was that no matter where equal weights had been placed in the pans, the scale would still balance.

In the 18th century, spring scales appeared. To produce these scales, a manufacturer would use the resistance of a spring to calculate weights, which could be read automatically on the scale’s face. The ease of use of spring scales over balance scales was what led most post offices to outfit their clerks with spring postal scales.

The Industrial Revolution brought about the development of mechanical weighing scales. Spring scales, invented in the 18th century, used a spring to measure weight. Industries such as agriculture and manufacturing commonly used them. Platform scales, invented in the 19th century, used a lever and counterbalance system, enabling manufacturers and merchants to weigh heavy loads such as industrial machinery. 

The traditional scale consists of two plates or bowls suspended at equal distances from a fulcrum. One plate holds an object of unknown mass, while objects of known mass, called weights, could be added to the other plate until the plates leveled off, indicating the masses are equal. The perfect scale rests at neutral. 

A spring scale, on the other hand, made use of a spring of known stiffness to determine mass. Suspending a certain mass will extend the spring by a certain amount depending on the spring's stiffness. The heavier the object, the more the spring stretches.

One of the most common types of spring scales was the kitchen scale—also known as a family or dial scale. Designed for horizontal surfaces, these vintage kitchen scales used the weight of goods in a pan at the top of the scale to force the spring down. Such scales, sold by Sears Roebuck and Montgomery Ward, became common in early-20th-century households. Many had flat weighing surfaces but some had shallow pans on top. Companies such as Salters, Chatillon, and Fairbanks made both.

One specialized type of spring scale was the egg scale, which grocers used to compute the weight of one egg or a dozen eggs. It also made it possible to classify eggs as to size—small, medium, large, or extra large. Jiffy-Way scales, made in Owatonna, Minnesota, beginning in 1940, became popular with collectors for their attractive red painted-metal housings. Another Minnesota company, Specialty Manufacturing Company made the Acme egg scale.

The weights used to balance scales varied from round, coin-like objects, each weighing a different incremental amount, to fancier ones shaped like bells. During the 19th and early 20th century, most scales were made of brass and/or cast metal. 

One of the most common antique scales is the postal scale. While those used in post offices were more elaborate, the basic design of inexpensive postal scales, sold in office supply stores, hasn’t changed since the late 19th century. 

In the 19th century, some merchants used portable suspension balance scales to weigh coins. Often the value of the gold in a coin exceeded the coin’s stamped denomination. These antique scales, designed to fit into wooden or metal cases, could be hung from the nearest hook. They included brass pans and cast iron or lead weights.

Another type of balance scale had a weighing pan on one side and an arm on the other. Known as an unequal arm balance scale, this variety had the counterweight built into the device. 

Counter scales used in dry-goods stores featured Japanned cast iron and bronze trim. Made by companies such as Howe and Fairbanks, the footed tin pans of these scales were often oblong, some encircled at one end so bulk items could be easily poured into a bag. Seamless pans were typically stamped from brass and given style names like Snuff, the smallest, and Birmingham, the largest. Manufacturers designed some counter scales for measuring spices while others weighed slices of cake.

Scales come in all sizes and varieties and prices, making them an excellent item with which to begin or expand a collection. 

To read more articles on antiques, please visit the Antiques Articles section of my Web site.  And to stay up to the minute on antiques and collectibles, please join the over 30,000 readers by following my free online magazine, #TheAntiquesAlmanac. Learn more about "The  Vernacular Style" in the 2024 Winter Edition, online now. And to read daily posts about unique objects from the past and their histories, like the #Antiques and More Collection on Facebook.

Miniature Relief Portraits in Stone

 

QUESTION: When I was very young, my mother would take me to visit my great grandmother. The first time I saw her she was wearing a beautiful pin with the picture of a lady carved on it. She later told me it was a cameo, given to her by her mother. She also had several others in different colors and designs. Needless to say, she has since passed, leaving her cameos to me. They are so beautiful but seem outdated by today’s standards. I may begin adding to the ones she gave me and would like to know more about their history and how I can tell how old they are. 

ANSWER: While cameos may not be in style today, they are nevertheless a great thing to collect. They span all periods from ancient to the early 20th century.

Cameos have been around since 15,000 B.C.E, appearing first as carvings on rocks to record significant events in ancient Egypt. 

During the reign of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century B.C.E., Greek and Roman cameos featured religious figures and mythological images. During the Greek Hellenistic era, women wore cameos to display their willingness to engage in intercourse. Quattrocento collectors, those from the 15th century Italian cultural and arts period, began distinguishing among the ancient cameos. 

Upper class women began wearing carved gemstones as a sign of wealth and prestige in the 18th century. Carvers soon realized they could use Plaster of Paris molds to recreate such gemstones as records of notable cameo collections. Scottish gem engraver and modeler James Tassie began using these molds recreate glass pastes that could pass as authentic, carved jewels.

Carvers realized just how easily they could replicate expensive jewels. They discovered Cornelian shells, which were soft, durable, and easy to carve. In the 19th century, England’s Queen Victoria popularized shelled cameos. As interest grew, Napoleon took a particular interest in them. He brought carvers to France from all over Europe to create cameo jewelry for both men and women. 

The Industrial Revolution produced an affluent middle class with plenty of money, and leisure time in which to spend it. Scores of Victorians broadened their horizons with travel, taking the Grand Tour of the European continent, and acquiring mementos and small gifts along the way to bring home for friends and loved ones. An essential stop on every Grand Tour was Italy.

A new type of cameo, made of petrified lava, also appeared in the 19th century. Colored lava extracted from an archaeological dig at Pompeii proved useful for highly detailed carvings. Women during this time were embarking on their Grand Tours, which were traditional trips were taken by wealthy young European men and women serving as an educational rite of passage. Women often purchased lava cameos as souvenirs of their travels, which established them as symbols of status and wealth.

But what exactly is a cameo? A cameo is a small piece of sculpture, often a profiled head in relief, on a stone or shell cut in one layer with another contrasting layer serving as the background. They could be made of any layered material capable of being carved so that the layers underneath were exposed. Over the centuries, cameos have been made of shell, stone, lava, gemstones, plastic and glass.

Cameos most commonly appear as portraits of women, although other popular subjects are men, groups, scenery, animals and flowers. Classic cameos, such as the ones Victorian women brought back to England, were made of shell and often depicted Greek and Roman gods and goddesses, recognizable by the various symbols placed in their hair or else-where in the portrait. An example of this was Diana, the Goddess of the Hunt, always depicted with a crescent moon in her hair, and sometimes carrying a quiver of arrows and a bow.

There are several ways to date a cameo. The first is its construction. A Victorian brooch. made before the invention of the locking pin clasp, has a simple "C" clasp, indicating it was made before 1900. Also, the pin shaft in a Victorian brooch extended out past the rim of the brooch and was visible when a woman wore one. 

The hair, clothing, and even the nose of the subject can also identify an older cameo. A Greco-Victorian cameo, while a short bob will appear on a cameo made during the early 20th century. Clothing styles change too, so looking at the subject's style of dress can help one date a cameo. And then there's the nose. During the Victorian era, the "Roman" or aquiline nose, a long nose with a straight bridge, was a sign of classic beauty. Later, society came to view a smaller, upturned nose as most attractive. 

The finest, most expensive cameos are those made from semi-precious stones. Agate is one of the most popular since it’s difficult to carve and requires significantly more skill to produce. 

The rareness of a cameo is a stronger determinant of its value than its age. For example, though the Roman Empire predated the Renaissance era, Collectors consider Renaissance cameos more valuable because there are fewer of them. The metal used can also give an indication of the age of a cameo. If the mounting is a pinchbeck—an alloy of copper and zinc resembling gold—it was likely made between the early 18th century and mid-19th century. Gold electroplating wasn’t patented until 1840, so all cameos that are plated were carved after this date.

The setting, or framing, is one of the most important determinants of age and value. Those that are remounted are considerably less valuable. The setting will be different depending on the era from which it was produced. For example, Victorian cameos often feature confined, simple frames as opposed to the jeweled, pearled versions that followed decades later.

Collectors today look for skillful hand-carving, exquisite detail and interesting subjects. Also, a cameo should be judged on the content and quality of the setting, its size and, most importantly, its condition. It's a good idea to hold a cameo up to the light to look for stress lines and cracks, before purchasing. Details such as the creative use of the coloring of the shell or stone, and the adornment of the subject with jewels or other accessories will also increase the desirability, and therefore the price, of a cameo.

To read more articles on antiques, please visit the Antiques Articles section of my Web site.  And to stay up to the minute on antiques and collectibles, please join the over 30,000 readers by following my free online magazine, #TheAntiquesAlmanac. Learn more about "The  Vernacular Style" in the 2024 Winter Edition, online now. And to read daily posts about unique objects from the past and their histories, like the #Antiques and More Collection on Facebook.